donkey

Equine sarcoids develop upon bovine papillomavirus type 1 or 2 (BPV1, BPV2) infection in conjunction with trauma and represent the most common tumour disease in horses and other equids, including donkeys. In face of a sarcoid outbreak involving 12 of 111 donkeys and mules at the ‘Rifugio degli Asinelli’, a subsidiary charity organization of The Donkey Sanctuary, non-invasively collected sample material including crusts, dandruff, swabs and hair roots was collected from sarcoid-affected and 26 healthy donkeys, as well as dandruff from a grooming kit and tabanids caught from or in the vicinity of sarcoid patients. In addition five previously collected sarcoids stored in formalin were provided.

DNA isolated from collected material was tested for the presence of the BPV1/2 E5 oncogene using PCR. Positive samples were further analysed by E2/E4 and LCR PCR and amplicon sequencing to determine a possible common source of infection via comparative alignment of intralesional BPV1/2 gene variants. IC/PCR was used to assess sample aliquots for the presence of BPV1/2 virions, and IHC to analyse five tumours for BPV1 E5 and L1 protein expression.

All sarcoid-affected donkeys, two of 55 tabanids and dandruff from a curry comb tested positive for BPV1/2 E5, yet negative by IC/PCR. Healthy animals were BPV1/2-free. IHC revealed different levels of intralesional E5 and L1 expression. A series of BPV1 E5, E2, and LCR variants and BPV2 E5 were detected from donkeys, indicating that they had accidently developed sarcoids at about the same time rather than having acquired disease from each other.

Donkey’s milk is a valuable product for paediatric patients with allergy to cow milk proteins. As the donkey milk qualifies as a product intended primarily for consumers with special needs, it should be of good quality and therefore the donkeys must enjoy good health and welfare.

To better understand how dairy donkeys’ welfare is assured around Europe, an analysis of EU, Italian and Regional Legislation about welfare of donkeys used to produce milk was conducted. According to 98/58/EC Directive, donkeys kept for milk/meat production should be considered as farm animals. This Directive, without being species-specific, lays down minimum standards for the protection of animals bred or kept for farming purposes.

European Regulation 37/2010 and Italian Dlgs 193/2006 report the rules on the use of veterinary drugs. A veterinarian must prescribe pharmacologically active substances and commend an appropriate withdrawal period to ensure that food derived from treated animals does not contain residues harmful to consumers. No specific information regarding drugs for dairy donkeys is reported and it is unclear what happens in reality when a lactating jenny needs treatment.

Three Italian Regions (Piemonte, Emilia Romagna and Veneto) have specific regulations about donkey milk production. The “D.D. 461 17/06/2013”, “Circolare 17 05/10/2005” and “ALLEGATO A Dgr 513 03/04/2012” report requirements for milk production to guarantee adequate food safety and generically suggest that donkeys should be kept in good welfare conditions.

In addition, Italian guidelines “Codice per la Tutela e la Gestione degli Equidi” provides essential criteria for proper management of equines, according to good practices and ethical behaviour; they give suggestions about nutrition and water provision, stable management, training, identification documents, transport, euthanasia, education of farmers.

Our work highlights that protecting welfare of donkeys used to produce milk may be affected by a lack of specific legislation. As a first step, the development of specific guidelines would help to improve their welfare.

A peripheral nerve sheath tumour, with features of a benign schwannoma and arising from the endocardium of the right ventricle, was found incidentally during routine post-mortem examination of a 28-year-old gelding donkey. Macroscopically, five round to oval, white to grey and red, firm masses, firmly attached to the endocardium were identified. Microscopically, the endocardium and adjacent subendocardium were infiltrated by a variably demarcated, non-encapsulated mesenchymal neoplasm with features of a benign schwannoma, including concurrent presence of Antoni A and Antoni B areas, nuclear palisading, neoplastic cells with enlarged bizarre nuclei (‘ancient change’) and the formation of Verocay-like bodies. Immunohistochemically, the tumour cells were variably strongly positive for expression of S100 and glial fibrillary acidic protein. This is the first cardiac tumour reported in a donkey and is macroscopically, histologically and immunohistochemically similar to endocardial schwannoma occurring in Wistar rats.

Published online ahead of print.

This Research Paper aimed to investigate donkey welfare in dairy husbandry systems and to identify the potential factors affecting it at animal level. In 2015, twelve dairy donkey farms (19–170 donkeys per farm, mean = 55 ± 48), distributed throughout Italy, were visited. On each farm, the Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) welfare assessment protocol for donkeys was used by two trained assessors to evaluate the welfare of animals for a total of 257 donkeys assessed. The protocol includes animal-based indicators that were entered in a digitalised system. Prevalence of different scores at individual, farm and category level were calculated. Farmers were asked to fill out a questionnaire including information regarding the management of donkeys and their final destination. Answers to the questionnaire were then considered as effects in the risk factor analysis whereas the scores of the animal-based indicators were considered as response variables. Most of the donkeys (80·2%) enjoyed a good nutritional status (BCS = 3). 18·7% of donkeys showed signs of hoof neglect such as overgrowth and/or incorrect trimming (Min = 0% Max = 54·5%). Belonging to a given farm or production group influenced many of the welfare indicators. The absence of pasture affected the likelihood of having skin lesions, alopecia, low BCS scores and a less positive emotional state. Lack of routine veterinary visits (P < 0·001) and having neglected hooves (P < 0·001) affected the likelihood of being thin (BCS < 3). Belonging to specific production groups, lack of access to pasture and showing an avoidance reaction to an approaching human (AD) resulted in risk factors associated with a higher prevalence of signs of hoof neglect. Our results support the idea that lack of knowledge of proper donkey care among owners was behind many welfare issues found.

Published online ahead of print.

As a unique species of equine the donkey has certain specific variations from the horse. This review highlights the origins of the donkey and how this impacts upon its behaviour, physiology and propensity to disease. The donkey is less of a flight animal and has been used by humans for pack and draught work, in areas where their ability to survive poorer diets, and transboundary disease while masking overt signs of pain and distress has made them indispensable to human livelihoods.

When living as a companion animal however the donkey easily accumulates adipose tissue, this may create a metabolically compromised individual prone to diseases of excess such as laminitis and hyperlipaemia. They show anatomical variations from the horse especially in the hoof, upper airway, and their conformation. Variations in physiology lead to differences in the metabolism and distribution of many drugs. With over 44 million donkeys worldwide it is important that veterinarians have the ability to understand and treat this equid effectively.

Endoparasites in donkeys are ubiquitous and may cause serious disease. All common helminth parasites that affect horses also infect donkeys, therefore donkeys that co-graze can act as a significant source of infection for either species. Whilst donkeys are prone to the same parasite species as horses infection characteristics and presenting signs and symptoms of disease may differ. Large strongyles and cyathostomins are common in donkeys worldwide with Strongylus vulgaris causing significant disease in donkeys with poor anthelmintic treatment history. Cyathostomins infect the majority of donkeys globally and may rarely cause cyathostominosis or colitis; however signs and symptoms of both can vary significantly from those displayed in affected horses. The significance of low level cyathostomin infection on the donkey host is unclear, many donkeys appear to thrive with high faecal egg counts (> 3000epg) and when the donkey is in general good health they may exist with high cyathostomin burdens with little impact on their overall health. The donkey is renowned as the reservoir host for the lungworm, Dictyocaulus arnfieldi. Mature horses are not permissive hosts to the full life cycle of this parasite, but develop clinical signs on infection. In contrast, donkeys are permissive hosts without displaying overt clinical signs and act as a source of infection to co-grazing horses. Donkeys are also susceptible to the flukes, Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica and may be an important reservoir host for both human and herbivore infections particularly in developing countries. Finally, Parascaris spp. infections in donkeys are common, however infection is not only associated with young, immuno-compromised animals as seen in horses. Parascaris spp. infection is a frequent finding in all age groups of donkeys. The inability of many donkeys to develop lifelong immunity to Parascaris poses problems when attempting to reduce transmission of this parasite in herds which include adult and young donkeys. Anthelmintic treatment is challenging as many anthelmintics are not licensed for use in this species; however dosing should follow best practice used in horses. Anthelmintic resistance is of particular concern in donkeys with recent reports of lack of efficacy of all anthelmintic classes in cyathostomins infecting donkeys. Control of parasites in donkeys must primarily focus on reducing the risk of infection, maintaining good health and targeting drug treatments carefully. Donkeys can be co-grazed safely with other species but careful monitoring and control should be practiced to ensure that donkeys do not act as reservoirs of infection to other, more susceptible animals. The importance of parasite infection, particularly co-infection with multiple species must be appreciated. Donkeys under stress due to malnourishment, infectious disease, overwork or neglect are at a high risk of disease related to parasite infection and consideration must be given to targeted treatments in such circumstances. Whilst the donkey remains a challenging parasite host following simple control measures and improving the overall welfare of the donkey will undoubtedly serve both the donkey and other species grazing alongside.

The domestic donkey is a unique equid species with specific nutritional requirements. This article examines the importance of feeding strategies that mimic the donkey's natural environment using poor nutritional quality fibers and access to browsing materials. The relationship between nutrition and health is examined and practical approaches to the healthy and sick donkey are discussed.

Published online ahead of print.

Disorders of the hoof have important health and welfare implications in donkeys. Clinical conditions that affect the donkey hoof include laminitis, which is one of the most common causes of lameness in donkeys in the UK, as well as white line disease/abscess, and chronic conditions such as overlong hooves. This article reviews the normal anatomy and function of the donkey’s foot, before discussing in more detail the diseases that can arise and their treatment.

Ten normal cheek teeth (CT) were extracted at post mortem from donkeys that died or were euthanased for humane reasons. Decalcified histology was performed on three sections (sub-occlusal, mid-tooth and pre-apical) of each tooth, and undecalcified histology undertaken on sub-occlusal sections of the same teeth. The normal histological anatomy of primary, regular and irregular secondary dentine was found to be similar to that of the horse, with no tertiary dentine present. Undecalcified histology demonstrated the normal enamel histology, including the presence of enamel spindles. Scanning electron microscopy was performed on mid-tooth sections of five maxillary CT, five mandibular CT and two incisors. The ultrastructural anatomy of primary and secondary dentine, and equine enamel types-1, -2 and -3 (as described in horses) were identified in donkey teeth. Histological and ultrastructural donkey dental anatomy was found to be very similar to equine dental anatomy with only a few quantitative differences observed.